COURSE APPROVAL DOCUMENT

UNIVERSITY STUDIES PROGRAM

Southeast Missouri State University

Department of Music

The Age of Modernism UI393

New

I. Catalog Description and Credit Hours of Course:

This course will examine Modernism in music and culture through an in-depth study of thirteen masterpieces of music in the context of their times. (3)

II. Justification for the Interdisciplinary Nature of the Course

This course combines the disciplines of musicology and cultural history in investigating a specific repertoire of music. The musicological approach to be used in this class will be that of music criticism, which aims to integrate musical analysis with historical and biographical details to achieve an aesthetic appreciation for the repertoire under study. Concurrent with the musical discipline, which will address the subject from the perspective of Artistic Expression, the course will study the Modernist movement through the perspective of the Development of a Major Civilization, with a particular emphasis on the cultural history of the period under review. Several teaching strategies will encourage this interdisciplinary approach. Students will be required to do source readings in studying the cultural history of the period (poetry, literature, art analysis, and so forth will be required reading). Guest performers and presenters who specialize in aesthetic or historical features of the twentieth century will visit the class, and in-class activities will encourage the student to make links between the music under consideration and the world in which it appeared.

Modernist music reflects the historical, technological, and social movements of its time. By studying this music and the cultural developments of the era, the student will gain perceptions from both the disciplines of Artistic Expression and of Development of a Major Civilization. Modernism in music presents a study in extremes, with the works of many early modernist composers (e.g. Debussy, Ravel, Stravinsky) holding a central place in the canon, while the works of later modernists (e.g. Luciano Berio) have not gained widespread acceptance. Studying the Age of Modernism, the student will gain a deeper comprehension of the schism that has divorced contemporary high culture from popular culture.

III. Prerequisites: MM203 and MM207; or MU181 or MU182 by permission of the instructor; or by permission of the instructor.

IV. Purposes and Objectives of the Course:

A. The student will undertake a detailed study of thirteen outstanding Modernist works, using the disciplines of criticism, active listening, analysis, and consideration of the cultural context in which they appeared. (University Studies Objectives: 2, 4, 5, 7, 8)

B. The student will develop their aesthetic awareness and judgment. (University Studies Objectives: 2, 7, 8)

C. The student will refine the ability to both write and talk about music at a level appropriate to the various disciplines of musicology, theory, analysis and criticism. (University Studies Objectives: 1, 3 ,6, 7, 8)

D. The student will gain an understanding of the political, social and cultural milieu in which Modernism flowered. (University Studies Objectives: 1, 4, 5, 6)

E. The student will integrate a variety of intellectual disciplines and approaches (analytical, historical, contextual). (University Studies Objectives: 2, 5, 6)

V. Expectations of the Students:

A. Attend class and participate actively in class discussions, analysis, and respond to the works under scrutiny.

B. Successfully undertake dual oral/written presentations on various assigned topics for each set work.

C. Read assigned literature and pursue active listening exercises surrounding the thirteen set works.

D. Perform satisfactorily on all examinations.

VI. Course Outline:

This course is designed to permit the instructor(s) to develop a “subjects” approach to the course materials. Thus the general outline will remain intact, while specific works and composers under consideration may vary.

1. Claude Debussy—Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun (1894) 4 hours

• Precursors to Symbolism: Wagner, Poe, William Morris

• Historical Context: Aftermath of the Franco-Prussian War

• Symbolist Poets: Mallarme, Moreas, Villiers, W.B. Yeats

• Symbolism in the Visual Arts: Puvis de Chavannes, Gauguin, Böcklin

• Architecture: Horta, Gaudi

• Criticism: Moreas (Symbolist Manifesto), Edmund Wilson (Axel’s Castle)

• Debussy’s life and music

2. Arnold Schönberg—Die Glückliche Hand (1913) 3 hours

• Precursors to Expressionism: Strauss, Wagner, Klimt

• Historical Background: Fin de Siecle Vienna

• Expressionistic Writers: Rilke, Kafka

• Expressionistic Artists: Kandinsky, Kokoschka, Munch, Beckmann

• Expressionism in Film: Robert Wiene (The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari)

• Expressionism in Architecture: Poelzig, Rudolf Steiner

• Historical Context: Freud, Lueger

• Expressionism in Music: Schönberg , Berg, Webern

3. Igor Stravinsky—The Rite of Spring (1913) 4 hours

• Precursors of Primitivism: The Pre-Raphaelites, Mousorgsky, Rimsky-Korsakov

• Primitivist Writers: James Joyce, Ezra Pound, Appollinaire

• Primitivism in Dance: The Ballet Russes, Nijinsky

• Primitivist Artists: Rousseau, Picasso, Roerich

• Criticism: Bela Bartok, Stravinsky

• Primitivism in Music: Stravinsky, Bartok, Les Six

4. Erik Satie—Relâche (1924) 2 hours

• Introduction to Dadaism

• Dadaist Writers: Kurt Schwitters

• Dadaism in Film: René Clair (Entracte), Dali (Un Chien Andalou)

• Dadaism in the Visual Arts: Schwitters, Picabia, Duchamp, Man Ray

• Erik Satie as a Dadaist Composer

5. George Antheil—Ballet Mechanique (1924) 2 hours

• Introduction of Futurism, the Importance of Technology

• Futurist Writers: Marinetti

• Futurist Artists: Balla, Severini, Boccioni

• Futurism in Film: Leger (Ballet Mechanique)

• World War I: Historical Background

• Criticism: Marinetti, Severini, Russolo (The Art of Noises), Appollinaire

• Futurism in Music: Antheil, Russolo

6. Paul Hindemith—Mathis Der Maler (1933) 5 hours

• Introduction to Neoclassicism in Europe

• The Bauhaus

• The rise of the Third Reich (Degenerate Art)

• Neoclassicism in the Visual Arts: Picasso

• Neoclassicism in Film: Eisenstein

• Architecture: Gropius, Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier

• Criticism: Adorno, Stravinsky, Hindemith

• Neoclassicism in Music: Stravinsky, Prokofiev, Shostakovich, Walton, Hindemith

7. Roy Harris—Symphony No. 3 (1937) & Copland—Sym. No. 3 (1946) 5 hours

• An Introduction to Art Music in America

• Precursors: Charles Ives

• The Roaring Twenties and the Depression

• Social Realism: Government and the Arts

• Social Realism in the Theater: Blitzstein (The Cradle Will Rock)

• Visual Arts: O’Keefe, Benton, Stieglitz

• World War Two

• The Great American Building: Sullivan and Wright

• The Great American Novel: Steinbeck, Hemingway

• The Great American Dance: Martha Graham

• Criticism: Copland, Virgil Thomson

• The Great American Symphony: Copland, Harris

8. Luciano Berio—Sinfonia (1968) 2 hours

• The Aftermath of World War II in Europe

• The Aftermath of Social Realism: the Politics of Socialism and Communism in Europe

• Postserial Composers: Boulez, Stockhausen, Berio

9. John Cage—HPSCHD (1969) 2 hours

• Precursors in Futurism and Dada

• The use of Technology (Computer Creativity, Multi-Media)

• Abstract Expressionism: Pollock, Rothko

• Film and Dance: Godard, Cunningham

• Criticism: John Cage

• Aleatoric, Chance, and Musique Concrete: Penderecki, Cage, Shaeffer

10. Charles Wuorinen—Speculum Speculi (1972) 2 hours

• Precursors: Thomas Mann (Dr. Faustus)

• The Development of Serialism (Schönberg and Webern)

• Serialism in Europe as a Reaction to Fascism

• The Triumph of Serialism as a Reaction to the McCarthy Era

• The U.S. Information Agency fight against “Middlebrow Art”

• Cold War Propaganda (The Voice of America and Radio Free Europe)

• Pattern in the Visual Arts: Mondrian

• Pattern in Architecture: Mies van der Rohe

• Criticism: Babbitt, Wuorinen

• Conventional Serialism: Babbitt, Wuorinen, Stravinsky, Copland

11. Philip Glass—Einstein on the Beach (1976) 2 hours

• The Rise of Pop Art: Warhol, Lichtenstein

• Pop Art and Literature: Calvino, Burgess

• Pop Art and Film: Stanley Kubrick

• Criticism: Philip Glass, Robert Wilson

• Minimalists and Pop Art in Music: Glass, Reich

12. John Adams—Nixon in China (1987) 2 hours

• Postmodernism: A new Neoclassicism?

• Writers: Gray, Kundera, Eco

• Film Makers: Greenaway

• Architecture: Johnson, Graves

• Criticism: Leonard Meyer, Leonard Bernstein

• Postmodernist Music: John Adams, Maxwell Davies, Rochberg

13. Morton Subotnick—Jacob’s Room (1993) 2 hours

• Art based in Technology

• The Rise of Multi-Media

• Postmodern References

• Criticism: Gene Youngblood

• Multi-Media Composers: Subotnick, Reich, Glass, Gavin Bryars

The remaining class hours will be used for student presentations.

VII. Textbook

Morgan, Robert P. Twentieth-century music: a history of musical style in modern Europe and America, (1991: W.W. Norton & Co., NY), ISBN 0-393-95272-X.

VIII. Basis of student evaluations:

Examinations (3)............................................................................30%

Research Paper/Oral Presentation (2)..........................................40%

In-class activities including active listening

exercises, analyses and participation in

class discussions............................................................................30%

Total..............................................................................................100%

IX. Justification for inclusion in the University Studies Program.

1. Demonstrate the ability to locate and gather information.

Emphasis: Significant

1. Content: Locate and gather activities will be a constant throughout this course. Students will be required to carry out research and reading assignments in the Music Resource Center and Kent Library in order to be able to participate in class discussions and activities. Original research will be required for the culminating research paper. Students will be obliged to energetically locate and gather information in order to stay current in class discussions.

2. Teaching Strategies: Instructors’ presentations and material will be based upon a wide array of sources with which the students must become familiar, encompassing everything from Symbolism to Minimalism, from assessments of Social Realist writing to Dadaist poetry, and primarily, of course, critical and analytical approaches to the music found in the thirteen Set Works. Materials from a wide variety of sources will need to be accessed by the student, including internet research, score study, close examination of audio and visual sources, and literary, critical, and historical sources. The instructors will assist students in locating and gathering information from this broad spectrum of sources. In particular, tutorials on the use of resources housed in the Music Resource Center will be provided to students unfamiliar with that facility.

3. Student Assignments: Students will have to research the social, cultural and political background to acquire a cultural context for the thirteen Set Works. They will be required to locate the panoply of printed, audio and video material relating to each piece and composer, and from this they will cull information relevant to their own analytical projects.

4. Evaluation of Student Performance: Students will be evaluated on the basis of the thoroughness and accuracy of their research and thought as demonstrated in the written/oral research projects. Further, students will be expected to go beyond a mere regurgitation of facts as they fuse disparate kinds of data retrieved into a more complete perspective on the Modernist canon. Additionally, students will be evaluated on their ability to locate and gather information on a weekly basis so that they can remain current with class activities.

2. Demonstrate capabilities for critical thinking, reasoning and analyzing.

Emphasis: Significant.

1. Content: This Objective (along with number 8) is most central to this course. Analysis of the thirteen Set Works--allied to active listening--is the essential thread binding all the extra-musical, interdisciplinary material together. This Objective will be pursued through a study of the repertory, biography, bibliography, aesthetics, cultural and historical context, theory, and style analysis.

2. Teaching Strategies: Class activities will be directly related to the development of analytical understanding of the music experienced in class. The ability to recognize, acknowledge and argue over the architectural underpinning of the Set Works will be fostered by modelling by the instructors, active listening, guest presentations, appropriate readings, and class discussions.

3. Student Assignments: This Objective will be felt in all of the student assignments. Active participation in class discussions and listening experiences will hone the development of skills in analysis and criticism. The oral/written research presentations and shorter writing exercises will require that students analyze the musical elements present in specific works. Additionally, the development of Modernism and the ever widening schism between Modernist high art and popular culture will be analyzed. Each examination will significantly reflect the analytical component.

4. Evaluation of Student Performance: Students will be evaluated on the basis of their success in acquiring both the analytical skills necessary to comprehend the stature and achievement represented by this music, and the degree to which they can demonstrate recognition of the contemporary milieu which was its background. Written assignments on such topics as temporal analysis of Debussy’s Afternoon of a Faun and the artistic effect of John Cage’s HPSCHD will be given. Examinations will assess students’ ability to analyze music using a variety of procedures, as well as provide critical thinking on the role of Modernist music in its time. Specifically, such questions as (1)Describe the use of motive in Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring; (2) Describe the relationship between John Cage’s music and his philosophical writings; (3) How is Hindemith’s theory of Harmonic Fluctuation demonstrated in his Mathis der Maler?; will appear in examinations.

3. Demonstrate effective communication skills.

Emphasis: Significant.

1. Content: Written and oral communication skills will be inescapable facets of this course. Students will communicate their observations and feelings concerning the music they experience via the written word, class discussions and all analysis projects. Active listening will demand that students express verbally their analyses and responses to music heard. Written projects should represent reasoned, cogent, as well as emotional responses.

2 . Teaching Strategies: These will include instructor presentations (for instance on how to approach a music analysis paper and how this differs from papers appropriate to other disciplines). Teaching strategies will rely preponderantly on class discussions that call for the employment of an accurate vocabulary and methodological approach. Written skills will also be nurtured as the instructors address both the content and syntax of the essays submitted.

3. Student Assignments: These will tackle the issue of effective communication in both the written and oral realms. There will be two research projects which will carry with them the opportunity for each student to experience the challenge of presenting a topic in both the written and spoken form-- very different disciplines. Additionally, the students will be examining music, compositions that are themselves a very particular and profound means of expression and communication. All student assignments will mirror some level of understanding this species of human communication.

4. Evaluation of Student Performance: All evaluations of student performance in this course will directly reflect their effectiveness in communication. Student contributions in class discussions will be evaluated, as will the quality of the written work. Each student must demonstrate successful achievement in written communication (term papers, briefer analysis papers), oral communication (class forums, oral presentations on chosen topics), and non-verbal communication (responses to the emotional content of Modernist music) in order to receive a satisfactory grade in this course.

4. Demonstrate an understanding of human experiences and the ability to relate them to the present.

Emphasis: Considerable.

1. Content: The story of Modernism in the arts is the story of how our current artistic culture came to be. While the “story” itself has some importance to this course, the end result of the class should be an understanding of the present day artistic culture.

2. Teaching Strategies: Instructor and guest presentations, discussions and demonstrations will address this Objective in two distinct ways. First, the course will consider the musical and cultural circumstances surrounding composition of each set work - for instance, the effect of Mallarme’s salon and Moreas’s Symbolist Manifesto on Debussy’s Afternoon of a Faun; second, the course will study the tumultuous and rapidly changing world in which each work was composed: a world which included figures such as Edmund Wilson, Ernest Hemingway, James Joyce, Fernand Leger, Pablo Picasso, Adolf Hitler, Chairman Mao, Freud and Einstein, and events as epochal as the Spanish Civil War, the establishment of the Third Reich, the spread of Communism and the increasing importance of technology. This historical/biographical data will be linked to the production of each Set Work.

3. Student Assignments: To supplement the primary stream of analytical work, this course will be fleshed out with excursions into the Modernist world, including, but not limited to, considerations of twentieth century technology, Neoclassicism, Fascism, the writings of Rilke, Kafka, Joyce, Eliot, Stein, Gray, and Burgess, and the paintings of Leger, Severini, Picasso, Lichtenstein, Warhol, Mondrian, and Robert Delaunay. Students will examine the extent to which Modernist music, in all genres, reflected its times.

5. Demonstrate an understanding of various cultures and their interrelationships.

Emphasis: Considerable.

1. Content: In the twentieth century cultural differences developed not just between different countries and ethnic groups, but between members of single societies. In Western Europe and America these cultural differences became extreme. While we have lived our lives in the age of Modernism, most of us (and most of our students) live in the world of popular culture and know little of Modernist high culture. One of the primary objectives of this class is a development of an understanding of the relationship between Modernist high culture and popular culture.

2. Teaching Strategies: Class forums, instructor presentations, readings, and selected video excerpts will help address this Objective and assist students in grasping the ways in which Modernist high culture resembles popular culture, and in what ways it does not. On a musical plane, to what extent do trends in popular music reflect a debt to Modernism?

3. Student Assignments: Class discussions and questions in each of the three examinations will require that the students reflect and comment upon the cultural impulses of the world Modernism and the link to their own world.

6. Demonstrate the ability to integrate the breadth and diversity of knowledge and experience.

Emphasis: Significant.

1. Content: This course will relate the various cultural, political and sociological aspects of the twentieth century to a variety of musical masterworks from the period. Reference to European and American cultural, political and social history will be made as students follow each step in the ascent of Modernism. Use of such documents as Rossolo’s Art of Noises, Marinetti’s Futurist Manifesto, T.S. Eliot’s Wasteland, Steinbeck’s Red Pony, and John Cage’s Silence will challenge and encourage students to integrate their understanding of Modernism within the wider context of human experience. The study of Music’s pivotal impact on the cultural world of the twentieth century will also foster a world view of the contributions of art in shaping the human experience.

2. Teaching Strategies: Class discussions and presentations will concern themselves with this Objective throughout. Modernist music will be studied as a product of its own culture, which will be demonstrated in class activities through analysis, reading projects, slides, lectures, and discussion groups. The Set Works will not be studied as random acts of creativity; but rather, as the creative products of a complex, turbulent era.

3. Student Assignments: The political dimension driving the operatic output of Blitzstein and Adams will come under scrutiny. Further, the question as to what extent the tangible technological/industrial achievements reflected in the media of Modernism will be addressed. The question of technology’s effect on the “business of music” will be examined (for instance, how have advances in electronic technology affected the music of the later twentieth century). Each examination will contain questions that emphasize the integration of societal/cultural information.

4. Evaluation of Student Performance: The demonstrated breadth and quality of a student’s integrated awareness of Modernism will be a significant factor in evaluating that student’s written and oral work.

7. Demonstrate the ability to make informed, intelligent value decisions.

Emphasis: Significant

1. Content: The listed Set Works are regarded as beacons, “great” music. One of the aims of this course will be to encourage students to evaluate why this is so. Is this music really relevant (“great”), and if so, why? What are the musical factors that add up to “greatness”? This course will require students to approach the music of Modernism in a multi-disciplinary manner, evaluating the music through analytical, critical, and contextual approaches. An inquiry into the artistic value of the works will prompt students to examine their own value systems and preferences in music, and to comprehend truly the stature of these pieces, not merely to accept received wisdom in an undiscriminating way.

2. Teaching Strategies: The instructors will vigorously support student efforts to express and examine their opinions, both orally and on paper. The students’ value systems with respect to the music they listen to or play will be challenged via discussions and exercises relating to Modernist music in its own day, as well as in our own. The students will be encouraged to investigate and evaluate the cultural and historical events of the Age of Modernism.

3. Student Assignments: This Objective will be promoted by harnessing the student’s potential in using the fullest tools of analysis and emotional response in written projects and class colloquia.

4. Evaluation of Student Performance: The attainment of this Objective will be assessed through the quality of class participation and the students’ ability to draw meaningful conclusions out of the raw data of analysis. It will also be assessed through class projects such as comparing how Stravinsky, Philip Glass, and Steve Reich took the patterns of Beethoven and launched them into new spheres; comparing the art of the Pre-Raphaelites with that of the Fauves; comparing the style of Kafka with that of Alasdair Gray; or that of Picasso with Stravinsky; and will feature in each examination.

8. Demonstrate the ability to make informed, sensitive aesthetic responses.

Emphasis: Significant.

1. Content: From the very outset, the students will be challenged to develop their ability to meet this Objective on an emotional and analytical level. Along with Objective 2, this Objective represents the primary thread running through this course. The music comprised in the thirteen Set Works exhibits a huge expressive range, yet shares the central Modernist battle cry of Gertrude Stein: “make it new!” By acquainting students with a variety of analytical skills (formal, harmonic, rhetorical; the study of orchestration; performance practice issues) and with the cultural and historical context of the twentieth century, they will be oriented towards a critical approach to Modernist music.

2. Teaching Strategies: Instructors’ presentations, readings, guest lectures/performances, and, most of all, active listening linked to score analysis, will serve to forward this Objective.

3. Student Assignments: Analysis exercises, readings, and especially exposure to some of the greatest orchestras/performers/conductors realizing Modernist music will cultivate informed and sensitive responses.

4. Evaluation of Student Performance: The evaluation of students’ aesthetic awareness will occur through the intelligence of class discussion, the ability to draw conclusions from analysis, and well-rounded performance in each examination. For instance, students will need to be able to clearly compare and contrast the emotional content of works from the early, middle, and late manifestations of Modernism. Such questions as: “Survey the expressive and dramatic contrasts found in the five movements of Berio’s Sinfonia,” will appear on examinations. Students will also choose a research topic on some field of inquiry of interest to that student, such as, performance practices in the music of John Cage; motivic development in Einstein on the Beach; the new “sound world” of electronic music; and so forth.

9. Demonstrate the ability to function responsibly in one’s natural, social and political environment.

Emphasis: Some.

1. Content: Students will gain an understanding of the society and culture of Modernism through class discussions which will focus on these issues. Research concerning the literature, art, and philosophy of the time will be carried out; the course will also address such topics as the political and social structures of Europe & America in the twentieth century.

2. Teaching Strategies: Instructors will comment upon the social and political life of the twentieth century. Discussions concerning the political climate of Europe and America will be addressed in class meetings. Readings concerned with various composers’ roles as individuals both in concert and in conflict with the established political and social order will be assigned. The composer’s role as a cultural and political spokesman will be examined.

IX. Instructor’s Background.

Instructors for The Age of Modernism should possess a graduate degree in music as well as a thorough familiarity with the Modernist output and the cultural context in which the Set Works appeared.

X. Class Size.

The optimum class size for this course will be from 16 to 20 students, representing a figure large enough to anticipate a broad cross-section of views and approaches, while remaining small enough for the instructors to be able to devote time to each individual enrolled.

Course proposed by Dr. Robert Fruehwald and Mr. Paul Thompson, Department of Music.

Suggested Bibliography

(Most of the sources are historical. A few current sources are listed to provide a contemporary perspective).

Adorno, Theodor. Philosophy of Modern Music (trans. Anne Mitchell and Wesley Blomster). The Seabury Press, New York, 1973.

Antheil, George. Bad Boy of Music. Samuel French, Garden City, NY, 1945.

Busoni, Ferruccio. The Essence of Music and Other Papers. (trans. Rosamond Ley) Dover Publications, New York, 1957.

Cage, John. Silence. Wesleyan University Press, Middletown, CT, 1939.

Chip, Herschell. Theories of Modern Art: a Source Book by Artists and Critics. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1968.

Copland, Aaron and Perlis, Vivian. Copland. St. Martin’s/Marek, New York, 1942.

Copland, Aaron. Music and Imagination. Harvard U. Press, Cambridge, MA, 1952.

Delevoy, Robert. Symbolists and Symbolism. Rizzoli, NY, 1982.

Eliot, T.S. The Wasteland and Other Poems. Harvest Books, Harcourt, Brace and World, N.Y, 1930.

Glass, Philip. Music by Philip Glass. (ed. Robert Jones) Harper and Row, NY, 1987.

Harnoncourt, Nikolaus. The Musical Dialogue, Thoughts on Monteverdi, Bach, and Mozart. Amadeus Press, Portland, OR, 1984

Hindemith, Paul. A Composer’s World. Anchor Books, Garden City, NY, 1952.

Hindemith, Paul. The Craft of Musical Composition. School, London, 1942.

Ives, Charles. Essays Before a Sonata (from three Classics in the Aesthetic of Music). Dover Publications, N.Y, 1920.

Meyer, Leonard. Music, the Arts and Ideas., Patterns and Predictions in Twentieth-Century Culture. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1967.

Partch, Harry. Genesis of a Music. Da Capo Press, New York. 1949, 1974.

Pound, Ezra. Antheil and the Treatise on Harmony. Pascal Covici, Chicago, 1927

Reich, Steve. Writings about Music. The Press of Nova Scotia College of Art and Design, 1974.

Slazman, Eric. Twentieth Century Music. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2002.

Schwarz, Elliot. Music Since 1945. Wadsworth Publishers, 1993.

Sullivan, Louis. Kindergarten Chats. Dover Books, NY, 1979 (reprint of 1918 edition).

Stravinsky, Igor. An Autobiography. W.W. Norton, NY, 1936.

Stravinsky, Igor. Poetics of Music. (Trans. Arthur Knodel and Ingolf Dahl). Harvard U. Press, Cambridge, MA, 1942.

Various. Music in the Twentieth Century. M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 1998.

Wilson, Edmund. Axel’s Castle. Charles Scribner’s Sons, N.Y., 1931.

Wuorinen, Charles. Simple Composition. Longman, New York, 1979.